Effect of Vegetation on Slope Stability

Effect of Vegetation on Slope Stability 5.1 Introduction Incorporating the vegetation effect in slope stability has been used for many years in geotechnical engineering. The vegetation effect on slope stability usually ignored in conventional slope analysis and it is considered as a minor effects. Although the vegetation effect on slopes qualitatively appreciated after the pioneer quantitative research. The vegetation cover is recognized in urban environment and it is generally utilized along transportation corridors such as highways and railway, river channels, canals, mine waste slopes and artificially made sloping ground. There are some remedial techniques for soil stabilizations in civil engineering practice such as geosynthetic reinforcement or soil nailing are often used at slopes at great expense, but now many parts of the world considered sustainable alternative methods such as using the vegetation cover or soil bioengineering in civil engineering applications. This method reduces the cost and local labour force and it is environmental friendly method. The vegetation cover, the roots draw out moisture from soil slopes through evapo-transpitation leads to shrinking and swelling in soil. After prolonged wet and dry period, it is possible to foam cracks at dry period due to reduction of moisture content from vegetation covers. 5.2 Influence of vegetation The vegetation effect influence on soil slopes, generally classified into two types, they are mechanical and hydrological effects. The hydrological effect is responsible for soil moisture content, increasing the evapo-transpiration and resulting increasing the soil matric suction. Water is removed from the soil region in several ways, either evaporation from the ground surface or by evapo transpiration from vegetation cover. The process produces upward flux of the water out of the soil. The mechanical effects from the vegetation root responsible for physical interaction with soil structure 5.2.1 Hydrological effects The influence of vegetation cover in soil moisture content in different ways. The rain water evaporates back to atmosphere ultimately reduce the amount of water infiltrate into the soil slope. The vegetation roots extract moisture from the soil and this effects leads to reducing the soil moisture content. The reduction in moisture content in soil, it will help to increase the matrix in unsaturated soil or decrease the pore water pressure condition in saturated soil. Both of this action ultimately improves the soil stability. The vegetations moisture reduction ability is well recognized. The root reinforcement is most important factor, it is generally considered in vegetation effects on slope analysis, thought the recent studies shows the importance of hydrological effects on slopes by Simon Collision (2002). They studied the pore water pressure and matric suction in soil over for one cycle of wet and dry cycle under different vegetation covers. This result shows the significant effec ts of vegetation hydrological effects are soil structure. 5.2.2 Mechanical effects The vegetations root matrix system with high tensile strength can increase the soil confining stress. The soils root reinforcement is described with roots tensile test and adhesional properties. The additional shear strength of soil is given by the plant root bound together with the soil mass by providing additional apparent cohesion of the soil. The slope contain large trees need to consider the weight of the tree. The additional surcharge to the slope may give from larger trees. This surcharge increases the confining stress and down slope force. The surcharge from larger trees could be beneficial or adverse condition depending of the location on soil slope. If the trees located slope toe, the slope stability will be improved due to additional vertical load. On the other hand, if the trees located at upper surface of the slope, hence overall stability reduced due to vertical down slope force Furthermore, the wind loading to larger trees increasing the driving force acting on the slope. In the wind load is sufficiently large it may create the destabilizing moment on the soil slope from larger trees. Larger trees roots penetrate deeper strata and act as stabilizing piles. The effects of surcharge, wind loading and anchoring usually considered only larger trees. 5.3 Vegetation effects on soil slope numerical study In this parametric study, the effect of vegetation on the stability of slope has been investigated using the SLOPE/W software tool. In this study only consider the parameter root cohesion known as apparent root cohesion (CR). This coefficient incorporated with Mohr-Coulomb equation. 5.3.1 Model geometry 20 m 10 m 20 m 10 m 20 m Figure 5. 1 Slope geometry à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ §Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ½Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  20 kN/m3 c = 15 kPa à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ½Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  20 °In this parametric study 10 m height 2:1 homogenous slope (26.57 °) is used to investigate the vegetation effect on stability analysis, as shown in Figure 5.1. The soil properties are as follows: 5.3.2 Vegetation covers arrangement for the numerical model Case Slope geometry Description 01 No vegetation cover 02 1 m height vegetation cover-entire ground surface cohesion 1 kPa to 5 kPa 03 2 m height vegetation cover-entire ground surface cohesion 1 kPa to 5 kPa 04 3 m height vegetation cover-entire ground surface cohesion 1 kPa to 5 kPa 05 vegetation cover only at the slope surface 06 vegetation cover only at the slope surface and upper surface Figure 5. 2 Vegetation covers arrangement for the numerical model 5.3.3 The root cohesion values from previous researchers Source Vegetation, soil type and location Root cohesion c v (kN/m2) Grass and Shrubs Wuà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¡ (1984) Sphagnum moss (Sphagnum cymbifolium), Alaska, USA 3.5 7.0 Barker in Hewlett Boulder clay fill (dam embankment) under grass in concrete block reinforced 3.0 5.0 et al. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1987) cellular spillways, Jackhouse Reservoir, UK Buchanan Savigny * (1990) Understorey vegetation (Alnus, Tsuga, Carex, Polystichum), glacial till soils, Washington, USA 1.6 2.1 Gray  § (1995) Reed fiber (Phragmites communis) in uniform sands, laboratory 40.7 Tobias à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1995) Alopecurus geniculatus, forage meadow, Zurich, Switzerland 9.0 Tobiasà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1995) Agrostis stolonifera, forage meadow, Zurich, Switzerland 4.8 5.2 Tobiasà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1995) Mixed pioneer grasses (Festuca pratensis, Festuca rubra, Poa pratensis), alpine, Reschenpass, Switzerland 13.4 Tobiasà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1995) Poa pratensis (monoculture), Switzerland 7.5 Tobiasà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1995) Mixed grasses (Lolium multiflorum, Agrostis stolonifera, Poa annua), forage meadow, Zurich, Switzerland -0.6 2.9 Cazzuffi et al.  § (2006) Elygrass (Elytrigia elongata), Eragrass (Eragrostis curvala), Pangrass (Panicum virgatum), Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides), clayey-sandy soil of Plio-Pleistocene age, Altomonto, S. Italy 10.0, 2.0, 4.0, 15.0 Norrisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (2005b) Mixed grasses on London Clay embankment, M25, England ~10.0 van Beek et al. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   Natural understory vegetation (Ulex parviflorus, Crataegus monogyna, 0.5 6.3 (2005) Brachypodium var.) on hill slopes, Almudaina, Spain van Beek et al. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (2005) Vetiveria zizanoides, terraced hill slope, Almudaina, Spain 7.5 Deciduous and Coniferous trees Endo Tsuruta à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1969) OLoughlin Ziemer à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1982) Riestenberg Sovonick-Dunford * (1983) Schmidt et al. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¡ (2001) Swanston* (1970) OLoughlin* (1974) Ziemer Swanston à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¡Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ § (1977) Burroughs Thomas* (1977) Wu et al. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¡ (1979) Ziemer à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1981) Waldron Dakessian*(1981) Gray Megahanà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¡ (1981) OLoughlin et al. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1982) Waldron et al. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1983) Wu à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¡ (1984) Abe Iwamoto à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (1986) Buchanan Savigny * (1990) Gray  § (1995) Schmidt et al. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¡ (2001) van Beak et al. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   (2005) Silt loam soils under alder (Alnus), nursery, Japan Beech (Fagus sp.), forest-soil, New Zealand Bouldery, silty clay colluvium under sugar maple (Acer saccharum) forest, Ohio, USA Industrial deciduous forest, colluvial soil (sandy loam), Oregon, USA Mountain till soils under hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) and spruce (Picea sitchensis), Alaska, USA Mountain till soils under conifers (Pseudotsuga menziesii), British Columbia, Canada Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), Alaska, USA Mountain and hill soils under coastal Douglas-fir and Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), West Oregon and Idaho, USA Mountain till soils under cedar (Thuja plicata), hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) and spruce (Picea sitchensis), Alaska, USA Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), coastal sands, California, USA Yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) seedlings grown in small containers of clay loam. Sandy loam soils under Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), Idaho,USA Shallow stony loam till soils under mixed evergreen forests, New Zealand Yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) (54 months), laboratory Hemlock (Tsuga sp.), Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) and yellow cedar (Thuja occidentalis), Alaska, USA Cryptomeria japonica (sugi) on loamy sand (Kanto loam), Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan Hemlock (Tsuga sp.), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga), cedar (Thuja), glacial till soils, Washington, USA Pinus contorta on coastal sand Natural coniferous forest, colluvial soil (sandy loam), Oregon Pinus halepensis, hill slopes, Almudaina, Spain 2.0 12.0 6.6 5.7 6.8 23.2 3.4 4.4 1.0 3.0 3.5 6.0 3.0 17.5 5.9 3.0 21.0 5.0 ~ 10.3 3.3 3.7 6.4 5.6 12.6 1.0 5.0 2.5 3.0 2.3 25.6 94.3 -0.4 18.2 * Back analysis and root density information. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚   In situ direct shear tests. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¡ Root density information and vertical root model equations. Laboratory shear tests. Table 5. 1 Values of Cv for grasses, shrubs and trees as determined by field, laboratory tests, and mathematical models In this parametric study apparent root cohesion (CR) was varied over the following range: 1 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ CR à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¤ 5 kPa ; CR à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‹â€  {1 kPa, 2 kPa, 3 kPa , 4 kPa , 5 kPa } Three vegetation root depth zones (hR) were used namely: hR à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‹â€  {1 m, 2 m, 3 m} A C BThe soil slope assumed as homogeneous slope. The case 1 soil slope (no vegetation cover on it) compared with the soil slope with vegetation cover on it. Figure 5. 3 Slope failure plane through slope region 5.3.4 Vegetation layer entire surface The case 2 condition applied the vegetation cover entire surface, the vegetation depth (hR) were 1 m and root cohesion were 1 kPa to 5 kPa. The same root cohesion applied to the case 3 and case 4 conditions. C (kPa) CR (kPa) hR (kPa) FOS Case 1 15 0 0 1.568 Case 2 15 1 1 1.571 15 2 1 1.575 15 3 1 1.579 15 4 1 1.582 15 5 1 1.586 Case 3 15 1 2 1.575 15 2 2 1.583 15 3 2 1.591 15 4 2 1.599 15 5 2 1.605 Case 4 15 1 3 1.580 15 2 3 1.593 15 3 3 1.605 15 4 3 1.618 15 5 3 1.630 Table 5. 2 Slope Analysis results for Case 1, Case 2, Case 3 and Case 4. Vegetation cover plays a significant role in slope stability analysis. The root cohesion experiments from various researchers over the past three decades results are shown in Table 5.1. In this research only consider the grass and shrubs root reinforcement. The apparent root cohesion range is 1 kPa to 5 kPa. If we consider the bigger trees in slopes need to consider its weight for slope stability calculations. The Table 5.2 shows the factor of safety analysis results for different root cohesion for different depths. Figure 5. 4 Different root cohesion (CR ) values for factor of safety for different root depths The analysis carried out with the software tool SLOPE/W. The graph shows the influence of vegetation cover i.e. root cohesion (CR) and its root depth (hR). The soil slope without any vegetation cover (CR = 0 kPa), the factor of safety is 1.570. This result shows the vegetation cover applied entire surface. The factor of safety linearly increase when increase with the root cohesion and root depth. The root cohesion and root depth has linear relationship with slopes factor of safety. 5.3.4 Vegetation layer only at slope surface and upper surface C (kPa) CR (kPa) hR (kPa) FOS FOS Case 6 Case 5 15 1 1 1.571 1.569 15 2 1 1.575 1.572 15 3 1 1.579 1.574 15 4 1 1.582 1.576 15 5 1 1.586 1.578 15 1 2 1.575 1.572 15 2 2 1.583 1.577 15 3 2 1.591 1.581 15 4 2 1.598 1.586 15 5 2 1.605 1.591 Table 5. 3 Slope Analysis results for Case 6 and case 5 The vegetation layer only considered at slope surface and upper surface, analysis carried out with SLOPE/W tool. The case 6 analysis results same as the case 2 and case 3. The results not affect with toe vegetation (section C at Figure 5.3) because failure plane only at section A and B section at Figure 5.3. So only influence with slope vegetation layer and upper surface vegetation layer in this slope analysis. The vegetation layer only at slope surface analysis results (case 6) compared with vegetation only at slope condition (case 5) shows lesser factor of safety values. The slopes upper surface vegetation has considerable influence in slope stability. 5.3.4 Vegetation layer only at toe C (kPa) CR (kPa) hR (kPa) FOS Vegetation layer only at toe 15 1 1 1.568 15 2 1 1.568 15 3 1 1.568 15 4 1 1.568 15 5 1 1.568 15 1 2 1.568 15 2 2 1.568 15 3 2 1.568 15 4 2 1.568 15 5 2 1.568 Table 5. 4 Slope Analysis results for Vegetation layer only at toe The SLOPE/W analysis shows (Table 5.5) for vegetation at toe Figure 5.1 section C. All the results for different depths and different root cohesion values are the same. The failure plane of this analysis only at section A B. So there is no influence with the toe vegetation. If the failure plane goes to section only toe vegetation influence in slope stabilization. 5.3.5 Slope failure plane through toe C B A Figure 5. 5 Slope failure plane through toe CR (kPa) Vegetation at toe hR (kPa) FOS 1 1 1.619 2 1 1.624 3 1 1.628 4 1 1.632 5 1 1.636 1 2 1.621 2 2 1.626 3 2 1.632 4 2 1.637 5 2 1.642 Table 5. 5 Slope Analysis results for failure plane through toe region, Vegetation layer only at toe This slope analysis failure surface was set through slope toe using entry and exit method. The Figure 5.5 shows clearly the failure plane, the failure region cover the entire region (A, B C). The vegetation layer applied at toe region for this analysis. The FOS increase with the increasing root cohesion and root depth, but there is no changes observed from the previous analysis, which is the failure plane only at section B C Figure 5.1. So the vegetation layer influent with the slope failure surface.

Domestic versus Foreign Poverty :: essays research papers

Personally, I mostly disagree with this statement although there are a few points in its favour. The bible provides the basis for Christian beliefs and values. The Catechism States: "Created in the image of the one God and equally endowed with rational souls, all men have the same nature and the same origin. Redeemed by the sacrifice of Christ, all are called to participate in the same divine beatitude: all therefore enjoy an equal dignity." This means that all men are equal in the eyes of God, and should be equal in each others. This means that we should treat each others as equal without considering race, nationality, sex or religion. ?All of you are Christ?s Body and each one is a part of it? (1 Corinthians 12:27). Therefore to ignore one man?s suffering is to ignore the body?s suffering as, ?If one part of the body suffers, all the other parts suffer with it? (1 Corinthians 12:26). To ignore one part of the body?s suffering causes the rest of the body to suffer. You cannot be a true Christian if you leave someone in poverty, as, if everyone is part of Christ?s body and all parts suffer if one does, then you are causing suffering to spread worldwide unchecked and even if you remove it from your community it still exists, so all still suffer. We should demonstrate the qualities set out by Jesus, to love thy neighbour, when we are dealing with anyone. Another important example, the parable of the Sheep and Goats shows the way that Good Christians should treat their fellow men. It says how Jesus ?will separate the people one from another as a shepherd separates the sheep from the goats? (Matthew 21:32-33) This means that he will separate the righteous from the unrighteous. He will put those blessed by God at his right and those who have done wrong against God or their fellow man on his left. In this way does the shepherd separate the sheep from the goats. Jesus is a shepherd of men. He will always protect his flock. This parable shows that we will be judged on the Day of Judgement for our actions on Earth. We must repent of our wrongdoings and help all others.

My Favorite Movie: Avatar Essay

Avatar, the epic movie by James Cameron, the director behind Titanic, is a project that has caused pop-culture ripples. James Cameron conceived the idea of Avatar back when he was working on Titanic. But the technology was not available then to bring his vision to life in the big screen. So instead of making the movie with sub-quality effects, he basically threw it in the drawer and it was not until 2005 that he decided to bring his masterpiece to life. In 2005, Cameron, along with Vince Pace, invented new ways of capturing the performances of the actors. Their team developed a brand-new image-based facial performance capture system which utilizes a head-rig camera and is able to record even the tiniest of facial movements. Avatar was filmed in stereoscopic 3-D using the brand new Fusion Camera System, which took seven years for Cameron and Pace to create, and is now the most advanced system of its kind. That is the reason why the actions of the natives looked so life-like and realistic, and that is because these parts were played by the actors, and the bodies of the Avatars were built around this motion, making each performance different, and making the Avatars more like the actor than any animated character would be. see more:my favourite movie essay Hence, Avatar was very much a live action film, not an animated film. The story took place on the planet Pandora, which, according to 20th Century Fox’s production notes, is â€Å"a moon with an Earth-like environment that orbits a gas-giant planet called Polyphemus in the Alpha Centauri. At 4.5 light years away, Alpha Centauri is our nearest stellar neighbor. And when it is discovered that Pandora is rich in a rare-earth mineral called Unobtainium, the race is on to mine the new world’s resources.† In the movie, Sam Worthington who starred as the film’s hero, Jake Sully, a disabled ex-marine, was called to help the humans convince the Na’vis give up their home tree. But as Jake Sully lived the life of Na’vis through his Avatar, he has learned to love the ways of life and beliefs of of the Na’vis. Sully, having realized what his fellow humans would cause to Pandora and the lives of the natives, eventually turned his back from the orders given to him, and helped the natives fight for their home. The film became a huge hit. It has reached the Five Hundred Million US Dollar mark in 32 days and became the highest-grossing film on January 26th,  2010, with a final worldwide gross of Two point Eight Billion US Dollars, beating Titanic, the previous record-holder and was also written and directed by Cameron, with a worldwide gross of One point Nine Billion Dollars. Sources: Avatar Production and Facts Wikia.com Imdb.com

Relationship Between Sexuality And Identity - 2496 Words

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